MS-DOS commands for hacking and its defence

ADDUSERS Helps Add or list users to/from a CSV file
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
ASSOC Change file extension associations
ASSOCIAT One step file association
AT Schedule a command to run at a later time
ATTRIB Change file attributes BOOTCFG Edit Windows boot settings
BROWSTAT Get domain, browser and PDC info CACLS Change file permissions
CALL Call one batch program from another
CD Change Directory - move to a specific Folder
CHANGE Change Terminal Server Session properties
CHKDSK Check Disk - check and repair disk problems
CHKNTFS Check the NTFS file system
CHOICE Accept keyboard input to a batch file
CIPHER Encrypt or Decrypt files/folders *
CleanMgr Automated cleanup of Temp files, recycle bin
CLEARMEM Clear memory leaks
CLIP Copy STDIN to the Windows clipboard.
CLS Clear the screen
CLUSTER Windows Clustering
CMD Start a new CMD shell
COLOR Change colors of the CMD window
COMP Compare the contents of two files or sets of files
COMPACT Compress files or folders on an NTFS partition
COMPRESS Compress individual files on an NTFS partition
CON2PRT Connect or disconnect a Printer
CONVERT Convert a FAT drive to NTFS.
COPY Copy one or more files to another location
CSVDE Import or Export Active Directory data DATE Display or set the date
Dcomcnfg DCOM Configuration Utility
DEFRAG Defragment hard drive
DEL Delete one or more files
DELPROF Delete NT user profiles
DELTREE Delete a folder and all subfolders
DevCon Device Manager Command Line Utility
DIR Display a list of files and folders
DIRUSE Display disk usage
DISKCOMP Compare the contents of two floppy disks
DISKCOPY Copy the contents of one floppy disk to another
DNSSTAT DNS Statistics
DOSKEY Edit command line, recall commands, and create macros
DSADD Add user (computer, group..) to active directory
DSQUERY List items in active directory
DSMOD Modify user (computer, group..) in active directory ECHO Display message on screen
ENDLOCAL End localisation of environment changes in a batch file
ERASE Delete one or more files
EXIT Quit the CMD shell
EXPAND Uncompress files
EXTRACT Uncompress CAB files FC Compare two files
FDISK Disk Format and partition
FIND Search for a text string in a file
FINDSTR Search for strings in files
FOR Loop command: all options Files, Directory, List
FORFILES Batch process multiple files
FORMAT Format a disk
FREEDISK Check free disk space (in bytes)
FSUTIL File and Volume utilities
FTP File Transfer Protocol
FTYPE Display or modify file types used in file extension associations GLOBAL Display membership of global groups
GOTO Direct a batch program to jump to a labelled line HELP Online Help
HFNETCHK Network Security Hotfix Checker IF Conditionally perform a command
IFMEMBER Is the current user in an NT Workgroup
IPCONFIG Configure IP KILL Remove a program from memory LABEL Edit a disk label
LOCAL Display membership of local groups
LOGEVENT Write text to the NT event viewer.
LOGOFF Log a user off
LOGTIME Log the date and time in a file MEM Display memory usage
MD Create new folders
MODE Configure a system device
MORE Display output, one screen at a time
MOUNTVOL Manage a volume mount point
MOVE Move files from one folder to another
MOVEUSER Move a user from one domain to another
MSG Send a message
MSIEXEC Microsoft Windows Installer
MSINFO Windows NT diagnostics
MSTSC Terminal Server Connection (Remote Desktop Protocol)
MUNGE Find and Replace text within file(s)
MV Copy in-use files NET Manage network resources
NETDOM Domain Manager
NETSH Configure network protocols
NETSVC Command-line Service Controller
NBTSTAT Display networking statistics (NetBIOS over TCP/IP)
NETSTAT Display networking statistics (TCP/IP)
NOW Display the current Date and Time
NSLOOKUP Name server lookup
NTBACKUP Backup folders to tape
NTRIGHTS Edit user account rights PATH Display or set a search path for executable files
PATHPING Trace route plus network latency and packet loss
PAUSE Suspend processing of a batch file and display a message
PERMS Show permissions for a user
PERFMON Performance Monitor
PING Test a network connection
POPD Restore the previous value of the current directory saved by PUSHD
PORTQRY Display the status of ports and services
PRINT Print a text file
PRNCNFG Display, configure or rename a printer
PRNMNGR Add, delete, list printers set the default printer
PROMPT Change the command prompt
PsExec Execute process remotely
PsFile Show files opened remotely
PsGetSid Display the SID of a computer or a user
PsInfo List information about a system
PsKill Kill processes by name or process ID
PsList List detailed information about processes
PsLoggedOn Who’s logged on (locally or via resource sharing)
PsLogList Event log records
PsPasswd Change account password
PsService View and control services
PsShutdown Shutdown or reboot a computer
PsSuspend Suspend processes
PUSHD Save and then change the current directory QGREP Search file(s) for lines that match a given pattern. RASDIAL Manage RAS connections
RASPHONE Manage RAS connections
RECOVER Recover a damaged file from a defective disk.
REG Read, Set or Delete registry keys and values
REGEDIT Import or export registry settings
REGSVR32 Register or unregister a DLL
REGINI Change Registry Permissions
REM Record comments (remarks) in a batch file
REN Rename a file or files.
REPLACE Replace or update one file with another
RD Delete folder(s)
RDISK Create a Recovery Disk
RMTSHARE Share a folder or a printer
ROBOCOPY Robust File and Folder Copy
ROUTE Manipulate network routing tables
RUNAS Execute a program under a different user account
RUNDLL32 Run a DLL command (add/remove print connections) SC Service Control
SCHTASKS Create or Edit Scheduled Tasks
SCLIST Display NT Services
ScriptIt Control GUI applications
SET Display, set, or remove environment variables
SETLOCAL Control the visibility of environment variables
SETX Set environment variables permanently
SHARE List or edit a file share or print share
SHIFT Shift the position of replaceable parameters in a batch file
SHORTCUT Create a windows shortcut (.LNK file)
SHOWGRPS List the NT Workgroups a user has joined
SHOWMBRS List the Users who are members of a Workgroup
SHUTDOWN Shutdown the computer
SLEEP Wait for x seconds
SOON Schedule a command to run in the near future
SORT Sort input
START Start a separate window to run a specified program or command
SU Switch User
SUBINACL Edit file and folder Permissions, Ownership and Domain
SUBST Associate a path with a drive letter
SYSTEMINFO List system configuration TASKLIST List running applications and services
TIME Display or set the system time
TIMEOUT Delay processing of a batch file
TITLE Set the window title for a CMD.EXE session
TOUCH Change file timestamps
TRACERT Trace route to a remote host
TREE Graphical display of folder structure
TYPE Display the contents of a text file USRSTAT List domain usernames and last login
VER Display version information
VERIFY Verify that files have been saved
VOL Display a disk label WHERE Locate and display files in a directory tree
WHOAMI Output the current UserName and domain
WINDIFF Compare the contents of two files or sets of files
WINMSD Windows system diagnostics
WINMSDP Windows system diagnostics II
WMIC WMI Commands XCACLS Change file permissions
XCOPY Copy files and folders This list is not exhaustive . Most commands will work well, however please don’t fume up as some of these might not work on your machine due to version dependencie

Not a valid Win32 application.

Not a valid Win32 application.

Often this error message will be similar to the below error message.

C:\Program Files\myprogram\program.exe is not a valid Win32 application.

Cause

This issue can be caused by any of the below possibilities.

1. File is corrupt, bad, or missing.
2. File is not designed for your version of Windows.
3. File is a virus, worm, or other malware file.
4. Hardware incompatibility.

File is corrupt, bad, or missing

If the file or program you're attempting to run is corrupt or missing, Windows will be unable to execute the file properly and sometimes generate this error message.

Download files

If you downloaded this file and verified it is complete and compatible with your version of Windows, delete the file and try downloading and running it again. It's possible during the download that the file became corrupted.

Finally, if the second download does not work, try downloading the file from a different webpage. It is possible that the person or company maintaining the website mistakenly uploaded a corrupt version of the file you're attempting download.

Installing a program from a CD or other disk

If you're attempting to install a program and are getting this error, verify that the CD is clean. If the CD is dirty or bad, you could get this error during the install or after the program has been installed because it was not copied properly onto the computer.

Running a program from the computer

If you're running the program from a shortcut on the computer, verify that the program is still on the computer. In some cases if the program is no longer installed on the computer you may get this error.

If the hard disk drive is corrupted or bad it can also cause working programs to fail either because not all the data can be read from the hard disk drive or because the program has become corrupted while on the drive. Run scandisk and defrag on the hard disk drive to check for any potential errors.

Long file name issue

Make sure the program or file you're attempting to run does not contain the same name as the long file name directory it is contained in. For example, executing a file named "program" in the "program files" directory can cause errors in some versions of Windows.

Additionally, if you're attempting to install a program and after the install the program does not work, you may also want to try installing the program in a different directory.

Bad file

Any file can be changed or renamed to be a .exe file. If you're downloading the file, make sure the file is supposed to be a .exe file and that it's not being changed. If you're attempting to create a .exe, file make sure you're compiling the file for Windows and never just rename a file to a .exe file. For example, renaming a .bat file to a .exe file will not make the file an executable file. For a file to become an executable file it needs to either be compiled or converted through a software program designed to convert the file.

File is not designed for your version of Windows

If you're trying to run a program that is not designed for your version of Windows you may get this error. Although many older programs designed to work in older versions of Windows will work with new versions of Windows, unfortunately, not all programs will work.

• If the program is an older MS-DOS program or early Windows program you may get this error.
• If the program is designed for a 64-bit version of Windows and you're running it in a 32-bit version of Windows, it will not work and generate this error.

Getting old MS-DOS games to run in Windows.

File is a virus, worm, or other malware file

This error can be generated by a file that is a virus, worm, Trojan, or other malware file. Often, this will be caused because the virus scanner installed in the computer will not allow the file to be installed or run. Try scanning the file to verify it is not a virus or infected.

If the file has been checked and is clean, it is still possible that the virus protection program or another program installed on the computer is causing issues during the install or execution of the program. Boot the computer into Safe Mode and try running the program; booting the computer into Safe Mode will make sure nothing is running in the background that could be causing this issue.

Hardware incompatibility

If you're getting this error during the installation of a program it's also possible that the CD-ROM drive or the drive you're installing the program from is not compatible with Windows or has drivers that are not compatible with Windows.

Download the latest drivers for your CD drive or other drive through our drivers page.

NTLDR is Missing

NTLDR is Missing  and Related errors

Below are the full error messages that may be seen when the computer is booting.

• NTLDR is Missing
• Press any key to restart
• Boot: Couldn't find NTLDR
• Please insert another disk
• NTLDR is missing 
• Press Ctrl Alt Del to Restart

Causes

1. Computer is booting from a non-bootable source.
2. Computer hard disk drive is not properly setup in BIOS.
3. Corrupt NTLDR and NTDETECT.COM file.
4. Misconfiguration with the boot.ini file.
5. Attempting to upgrade from a Windows 95, 98, or ME computer that is using FAT32.
6. New hard disk drive being added.
7. Corrupt boot sector / master boot record.
8. Seriously corrupted version of Windows 2000 or Windows XP.
9. Loose or Faulty IDE/EIDE hard disk drive cable.
10. Failing to enable USB keyboard support in the BIOS.

Possible Solutions

Computer is booting from a non-bootable source

Many times this error is caused when the computer is attempting to boot from a non-bootable floppy disk or CD-ROM. First verify that no CD is in the computer, unless you are attempting to boot from a diskette.

Note: This error has also been known to occur when a memory stick is in a card reader and the computer is attempting to boot from it. If you have any card reader or flash reader make sure that no memory stick is inside the computer. Additionally disconnect all USB drives, cameras, ipods, iphones, etc. from the computer.

If you are attempting to install Windows XP or Windows 2000 and are receiving this error message as the computer is booting verify that your computer BIOS has the proper boot settings. For example, if you are attempting to run the install from the CD-ROM make sure the CD-ROM is the first boot device, and not the hard disk drive. 

Second, when the computer is booting you should receive the below prompt.

Press any key to boot from the CD

Important: When you see this message press any key such as the Enter key immediately, otherwise it will try booting from the hard drive and likely get the NTLDR error again.

Note: If you are not receiving the above message and your BIOS boot options are set properly it's also possible that your CD-ROM drive may not be booting from the CD-ROM properly. Verify the jumpers are set properly on the CD-ROM drive.

• Verifying the CD-ROM cables are correctly connected.

Computer hard disk drive is not properly setup in BIOS

Verify that your computer hard disk drive is properly setup in the CMOS setup. Improper settings can cause this error.

Corrupt NTLDR or NTDETECT.COM file

Windows 2000 users

If your computer is using Microsoft Windows 2000 and you are encountering the NTLDR error. Create the below boot.ini file on the floppy diskette drive.

[boot loader]
timeout=30
default=multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\WINNT
[operating systems]
multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(1)\WINNT="Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional" /fastdetect

Copy the NTLDR and NTDETECT.COM files from another computer using the same operating system. Both of these files are located in the root directory of the primary hard disk drive. For example, C:\NTLDR and C:\NTDETECT.COM should be the locations of these files on many computers. 

How do I view hidden files in Windows?

Once these files have been copied to a floppy diskette reboot the computer and copy the NTLDR and NTDETECT.COM files to the root directory of the primary hard disk drive. Below is an example of what commonly should be performed from the A:\> drive.

copy ntldr c:
copy ntdetect.com c:

After the above two files have been copied, remove the floppy diskette and reboot the computer.

Windows XP users

1. Insert the Windows XP bootable CD into the computer.
2. When prompted to press any key to boot from the CD, press any key.
3. Once in the Windows XP setup menu press the "R" key to repair Windows.
4. Log into your Windows installation by pressing the "1" key and pressing enter.
5. You will then be prompted for your administrator password, enter that password.
6. Copy the below two files to the root directory of the primary hard disk. In the below example we are copying these files from the CD-ROM drive letter, which in this case is "e." This letter may be different on your computer.
   
   copy e:\i386\ntldr c:\
   copy e:\i386\ntdetect.com c:\
7. Once both of these files have been successfully copied, remove the CD from the computer and reboot.

Misconfiguration with the boot.ini file

Edit the boot.ini on the root directory of the hard disk drive and verify that it is pointing to the correct location of your Windows operating system and that the partitions are properly defined.

Attempting to upgrade from a Windows 95, 98, or ME computer that is using FAT32

If you are getting this error message while you are attempting to upgrade to Windows 2000 or Windows XP from Windows 95, Windows 98, or Windows ME running FAT32 try the below recommendations.

1. Boot the computer with a Windows 95, Windows 98 or Windows ME bootable diskette.
2. At the A:\> prompt type:
   
   sys c:
3. After pressing enter you should receive the "System Transferred" message. Once this has been completed remove the floppy diskette and reboot the computer.

New hard disk drive being added

If you are attempting to add a new hard disk drive to the computer make sure that drive is a blank drive. Adding a new hard disk drive to a computer that already has Windows installed on it may cause the NTLDR error to occur.

If you are unsure if the new drive is blank or not try booting from a bootable diskette and format the new hard disk drive.

Corrupt boot sector / master boot record

It's possible your computer's hard disk drive may have a corrupt boot sector or master boot record. These can be repaired through the Microsoft Windows Recovery console by running the fixboot and fixmbr commands.

Seriously corrupted version of Windows 2000 or Windows XP

If you have tried each of the above recommendations that apply to your situation and you continue to experience this issue it is possible you may have a seriously corrupted version of Microsoft Windows. Therefore we would recommend you reinstall Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows XP.

If you are encountering this issue during your setup you may wish to completely erase your computer hard disk drive and all of its existing data and then install Microsoft Windows.

Loose or Faulty IDE/EIDE hard disk drive cable

This issue has been known to be caused by a loose or fault IDE/EIDE cable. If the above recommendation does not resolve your issue and your computer hard disk drive is using an IDE or EIDE interface. Verify the computer hard disk drive cable is firmly connected by disconnected and reconnecting the cable.

If the issue continues it is also a possibility that the computer has a faulty cable, try replacing the hard disk drive cable with another cable or a new cable.

Count how many files are in a folder?

Microsoft Windows Vista and 7 users

1. Open Windows Explorer.
2. Browse to the folder containing the files you wish to count. As shown in the below picture, in the bottom left portion of the window it will display how many items (files and folders) are in the current directory.

If hidden files are not shown, these files will not be counted.

 If any file or folder is highlighted, only the selected items will be counted.

 Use the search box in the top-right corner of the window to search for a specific type of file. For example, entering *.jpgwould display only JPEG image files in the current directory and show you the count of files in the bottom corner of the window.

 If you need to use wildcards or count a more specific type of file, use the below steps for counting files in the Windows command line.

Microsoft Windows XP users

1. Open Windows Explorer.
2. Browse to the folder containing the files you wish to count.
3. Highlight one of the files in that folder and press the keyboard shortcut CTRL + A to highlight all files and folders in that folder. Once all files have been highlighted, in the Explorer status baryou'll see how many files and folders are highlighted as shown in the below picture.

 If hidden files are not shown, these files will not be selected.

 You can also individually count a specific type of file, for example, only counting image files. Click on the Type column header to sort the files by type and then highlight the first file type you wish to count. Once the first file has been highlighted hold down the Shift key and while continuing to hold it down press the down arrow key, to individually select files. If there are a lot of files, you can also hold down the Shift key and press the Page down key, which will highlight files a page at a time.

 If you need to use wildcards or count a more specific type of file, use the below steps for counting files in the Windows command line.

www.windowslinux.co.inMicrosoft command line (DOS) users

1. Open the Windows command line.
2. Move to the directory containing the files you wish to count and use the dir command to list all files and directories in that directory. If you're not familiar with how to navigate and use the command line, see our How to use the Windows command line (DOS) page.

As can be seen in the above example, at the bottom of the of the dir output you'll see how many files and directories are listed in the current directory. In this example, there are 23 files and 7 directories on the Desktop.

 To count a specific type of file in the current directory, you can use wildcards. For example, typing dir *.mp3 would list all the MP3 audio files in the current directory.

 To count all the files and directories in the current directory andsub directories, type dir *.* /s at the prompt.

Linux users

To list the count of files in Linux use the ls command piped into the wc command as shown below.

ls -1 | wc -l

To prevent any confusion, the above command reads ls ls . This command uses the ls command to list files in a bare format and pipes the output into the wc command to count how many files are listed. When done properly, the terminal should return a single number indicating how many lines were counted and then return you to the prompt.

 Keep in mind that this is also counting the ./ and ../ directories.

You can also add the grep command to find a more exact count of the files you wish to count as shown below.

ls -1 | grep ^a | wc -l

In this above example, the command will only count files that being with the letter a. The regular expression ^a could be replaced with any valid grep command or you could just replace the letter a with another letter.

MacOS users

1. Open the folder containing the files you want to count.
2. In that folder you should see at the bottom center of the window how many objects are listed, as shown in the below example picture.

Network Terminology

ADSP - AppleTalk data stream protocol manages the flow of data between two established socket connections.

AEP - AppleTalk echo protocol uses echoes to tell if a computer, or node, is available.

AFP - AppleTalk Filing protocol - Makes network files appear local by managing file sharing at the presentation layer.

AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port. This bus is developed for fast video cards. It is currently up to 4X mode speed.

AMPS - Advanced Mobile Phone Service is analog cellular phone service.

API - Application Programming Interface.

APPC - Advanced Peer-to-Peer Communications provides peer to peer services at the transport and session layer.

APPN - Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking supports the computer connections at the network and transport layers.

Architecture - The method that is used to transmit packets on a network. Sometimes the term architecture includes topology. An example is ethernet.

ARCnet - Attached Resource Computer Network is an architecture using star and bus topology.

ARP - Address resolution Protocol is used to resolve the hardware address of a card to package the ethernet data. It works at the data link layer. RFC 826.

ARUP - AppleTalk update routing is a newer version of RTMP

ASP - AppleTalk session protocol controls the starting and ending of sessions between computers called nodes. It works at the session level.

ASP - Active Server Pages is Microsoft's web server technology which can run Visual Basic or JAVA script.

ATM - Asynchronous Transfer Mode may be used over a variety of media with both baseband and broadband systems. It uses fixed length data packets of 53 bytes called cell switching.

ATP - AppleTalk Transaction Protocol provides a Transport Layer connection between computers.

AU - Access Unit provides access to resources like fax, telex, and teletex.

Backbone - Main cable used to connect computers on a network.

Bandwidth - Indicates the amount of data that can be sent in a time period. Measured in Mbps which is one million bits per second.

Baseband - Data bits are defined by discrete signal changes.

BDC - Backup Domain Controller is a backup for a PDC

.

BOOTP - Boot Protocol. RFC 951, 1542.

Bridge - Read the outermost section of data on the data packet, to tell where the message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments, since it does not send all packets but only sends packets intended for that segment they are attached to.

Broadband - Uses analog signals to divide the cable into several channels with each channel at its own frequency. Each channel can only transmit one direction.

Broadcast - A transmission to all interface cards on the network.

Brouter - Will function similar to a bridge for network transport protocols that are not routable, and will function as a router for routable protocols.

CCITT - International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee.          

CDMA - Code division multiple access allows transmission of voice and data over a shared part of radio frequencies. This is also called spread spectrum.

CDPD - Cellular Digital Packet Data will allow network connections for mobile users using satellites.

cellular - An 800 Mhz band for mobile phone service.

CHAP - Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol is a three way handshake protocol which is considered more secure than PAP.

CIDR - Classless Inter Domain Routing.

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Client - This computer requests resources for its use from a computer that provides the resource (a server).

CRC - Cyclic Redundancy check is a set of trailing data bytes in a message used to determine if an error occurred in a message.

CSMA/CD - Carrier-sense multiple-access with collision detection for controlling access to the network media.

DAT - Digital Audio Tape

DBMS - Database Management Systems are used to share data on a network.

DDE - Dynamic data exchange.

DDP - Datagram Delivery Protocol is a routable protocol that provides for data packet transportation. It operates at the network layer at the same level of the IP protocol.

DDS - Digital data service is a leased dedicated digital line.

DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol is used to assign IP addresses dynamically to network cards works at the application layer. RFC 1541.

DLC - Data Link Control operates at the data link layer and is designed for communications between Hewlett-Packard network printers and IBM mainframe computers on a DECnet network.

DNA - Digital Network Architecture is a term from DECNet

DNS - Domain Name System is used on the internet to correlate between IP address and readable names. RFC 1034, 1035, 1535-1537, 1591.

DRDA - Distributed Relational Database Architecture is from IBM.

DSU - Digital service unit used to connect to digital leased lines on the LAN side.

DUN - Dial up networking.

EISA - Extended ISA used when the 80286 through 80486 series microprocessors were being produced. It is backward compatible with ISA.

EMI - Electromagnetic Interference.

Ethernet - A network architecture that uses carrier-sense multiple-access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) for controlling access to the network media and baseband broadcasts. It uses star topology.

FDDI - Fiber Distributed Data Interface is a network architecture normally used to send longer distances. Topology is ring with two counter rotating rings for reliability with no hubs. Cable type is fiber-optic.

FDMA - Frequency Division Multiple Access divides the cellular network into 30Khz channels.

Frame - The unit of transmission in a link layer protocol, consisting of a link-layer header (ethernet) followed by a packet (IP header and data). It may be a part of a fragmented datagram.

Frame Relay - Error checking is handled by devices at both sides of the connection. Frame relay uses frames of varying length and it operates at the data link layer of the OSI model. A permanent virtual circuit (PVC) is established between two points on the network. Frame relay speed is between 56Kbps and 1.544Mbps.

Frequency hopping - The transmitter and receiver change predetermined frequencies at the same time (in a synchronized manner).

FTP - File Transport Protocol is a TCP/IP protocol running at the application layer.

Gateway - A gateway can translate information between different network data formats or network architectures. It can translate TCP/IP to AppleTalk so computers supporting TCP/IP can communicate with Apple brand computers. Not the same as a default gateway used by a client to send packets to.

GSM - Global System for Mobile Communications.

HDML - Handheld Device Markup Language is a version of HTML only allowing text to be displayed.

HTML - Hypertext Markup Language is the format many files for web viewing are in. It is a language with "mark-up" text included for formatting.

HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol is the protocol used to communicate between web servers and web browser software clients.

Hub - A type of repeater used on several network architectures which usually connects several stations.

IANA - Internet Assigned Numbers Authority.

ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol is used to perform network error reporting and status. It works at the transport layer. RFC 792.

IDC - Internet Database collector.

IETF - Internet Engineering Task Force. Sets Internet technical standards

.

IGMP - Internet Group Management Protocol, used for managing multicast groups.

IMAP - Internet Mail Access Protocol is the replacement for POP3

Infared - Infared is just below the visible range of light between 100Ghz and 1000Thz.

Internetwork - Several subnets connected together using routers.

InterNIC - Internet Network Information Center, the authority for allocating internet addresses.

Intranet - Refers to using internet technologies such as a web server on an internal network.

IP - Internet Protocol os used for software addressing of computers and works at the data link layer. RFC 791.

IPIP tunneling - Tunneling IP packets in IP packets. Used for VPN tunneling.

IPSec - Internet protocol security, developed by IETF, implemented at layer 3. it is a collection of security measures that address data privacy, integrity, authentication, and key management, in addition to tunneling. Used for VPN.

IPX - Internetwork Packet Exchange supports the transport and network layers of the OSI network model. Provides for network addressing and routing. It provides fast, unreliable, communication with network nodes using a connection less datagram service.

IRQ- Interrupt Request

ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network is a method of sending voice and data information on a digital phone line. Two 64Kbps B-channels with one 16Kbps D channel is provided with basic ISDN service

ISP - Internet Service Provider

ITU - International Telecommunication Union.

.

LAN - Local Area Network

LDA - Local delivery agent on the receiving machine receives the mail from its MTA

LCP - Link Control Protocol

Link - Connects two network devices. Implemented by the data link layer.

LLC - Logical link control is the interface between the lower and upper layer networking protocols.

LU - Logical Units are ports that users use to access network resources is an SNA term.

MAC - Media Access Control address. Basically a network card unique hardware address.

Mail notifier - This program notifies the recipient that they have mail. Normally this requires two programs, biff and comsat. Biff allows the administrator or user to turn on comsat service.

MAN- Metropolitan area network refers to a network which connects several LANS over various media that is large enough to cover an area the size of a city.

MDBS - Mobile Data Base Station reviews all cellular channels at cellular sites.

Message - The unit of transmission in a transport layer protocol. A TCP segment is a message which consists of a transport protocol header followed by application data.

MHS - Message Handling Service by Novell is used for mail on Netware networks.

MIB - Management Information BASE specifies variables the network elements maintain. Works with the TCP/IP protocol SNMP.

MIME - Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension is the protocol that defines the way files are attached to SMTP messages.

MOTIS - Message-oriented text interchange system.

MS - Message Store is a storage area for messages that can't be delivered immediately when the recipient is off-line.

MTA - Message transfer agent is used to pass mail from the sending machine to the receiving machine. There is a MTA program running on both the sending and receiving machine. Sendmail is a MTA.

MTP - Multicast Transport Protocol is a new transport layer protocol designed for reliable multicast network message transport.

MTU - Maximum Transmission Unit is the maximum size of each data packet for the ethernet protocol.

Multicasting - Transmitting to a group of interface cards on the network.

Multihomed - A host with multiple IP addresses.

NAT - Network Address Translation.

NBF - NetBIOS Frame Protocol.

NBNS - NetBIOS Name Server. A server that maps NetBIOS names to IP addresses. This service is provided by the nmbd daemon on Linux.

NBP - Name-binding protocol of the AppleTalk suite of protocols translates addresses into names.

NetBIOS - Network Basic Input Output System by Microsoft.

NFS - Network File System. A protocol that allows UNIX and Linux systems remotely mount each other's file systems. RFC 1094

NIC - Network interface card. Also called LAN adapters.

NNTP - Network News Transport Protocol is used to link newsgroups for discussions on the web

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OSI - Open Systems Interconnect is a suite of protocols developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) which corresponds with the layers of the OSI model.

OSPF - Open Shortest Path First, a dynamic routing protocol. RFC 1247.

Packet - Includes an IP header and data. It may be a complete IP datagram or a fragment of an IP datagram.

PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect internal computer bus. The popular expansion bus of choice. It is significantly faster than EISA. This is a 32bit bus with plug and play capability from Intel.

PDC - Primary Domain Controller is an NT server providing central control of user access permissions and accounts on a network.

PAP - Password Authentification Protocol is a two way handshake protocol designed for use with PPP.

PAP - Printer access protocol of the AppleTalk suite of protocols manages information between workstations and printers.

PCS - Personal communications Service is a 1.9 Ghz band for mobile phones.

Peer - A computer that can act as both a client and a server.

POP - Point of presence is each point at the end of the transport media (internet) when talking about VPN.

POP3 - Post Office Protocol version 3 is used by clients to access an internet mail server to get mail. It is not a transport layer protocol.

Protocol - A set of standards sets of standards that define all operations within a network. There are various protocols that operate at various levels of the OSI network model such as transport protocols include TCP, SPX.

PPP - Point to Point Protocol, used for serial connections to a network ot the internet. (RFC 1332, 1548)

RADIUS - Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service is used for dial in clients to connect to other computers or a network. It provides authentication and accounting when using PPTP or L2TP tunneling.

RAID - Redundant Array of Inexpensive disks is a fault tolerant method of storing data, meaning that a failure can occur and the system will still function.

RARP -Reverse Address Resolution Protocol used for diskless computers to determine their IP address using the network. It works at the data link layer.

RAS - Remote Access Service (RAS) with Windows NT allows users connecting to the network using a modem to use network resources. The NT RAS server can handle 256 connections.

Redirector - it runs on a windows operating system and directs requests for network resources to the appropriate server and makes network resources seem to be local resources.

Repeater - Used on a network to regenerate signals to be sent over long distances or tie computers together on a network.

Resolver - Used as part of DNS, it is the client side asking for DNS information.

RIP - Routing Information Protocol, a dynamic routing protocol. A distance-vector algorithm is used to calculate the best route for a packet. RFC 1058, 1388 (RIP2).

Rlogin - Remote login between UNIX hosts. This is outdated and is replaced by Telnet.

Router - Routes data packets between two networks. It reads the information in each packet to tell where it is going.

RPC - Remote Procedure Call. A protocol invented by Sun Microsystem to allow remote computers to invoke functions on other hosts. RFC 1057.

SAP - Service Advertising Protocol packets are used by file and print servers to periodically advertise the address of the server and the services available. It works at the application, presentation, and session levels.

SAS - Single Attachment stations attached to one ring and used by FDDI networks to attach workstations to concentrators.

SDLC – System Development Life Cycle

Server - For the most part it provides resources on the network for other computers to use.

SMB - Server Message Block protocol works at the presentation level to provide peer to peer communication.

SMS - SMS - Systems Management Server from Microsoft can collect information of software on each computer and can install and configure new software on the client computers. It will also monitor network traffic.

SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is a TCP protocol for mail transport running at the application layer. RFC 821, 822.

SNA - System Network Architecture by IBM is a suite of protocols mainly used with IBM mainframe and AS/400 computers.

SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol. RFC 1155, 1157, 1213, 1441.

SONET - Synchronous Optical Network is a physical layer standard that defines voice, data, and video delivery methods over fiber optic media. It defines data rates in terms of optical carrier (OC) levels.

SQL - Structured Query Language is a database access language. It is used by most client/server database applications.

SSCP - Systems Services Control Point manages all resources in the host's domain. An SNA term.

Subnet - A part of a network. A class B network may have several class C subnets. Usually routers are used to connect subnets.

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TCP - Transport Control protocol is a connection oriented reliable protocol working at the transport layer. RFC 793.

TFTP - Trivial File Transfer Protocol. RFC 1350.

Telnet - Remote session at the application layer. RFC 854.

Thicknet - Half inch rigid cable. Maximum cable length is 500 meters. Transmission speed is 10Mbps. Expensive and is not commonly used. (RG-11 or RG-8).

Thinnet - Thinnet uses a British Naval Connector (BNC) on each end. Thinnet is part of the RG-58 family of cable*. Maximum cable length is 185 meters. Transmission speed is 10Mbps.

UA - Users agent. This is the program a user will use to type e-mail. It usually incorporates an editor for support. The user types the mail and it is passed to the sending MTA. This may also be called the mail user agent (MUA).

UDP - User Datagram Protocol is a connection less unreliable protocol working at the transport layer. RFC 768.

UNC - Universal Naming Convention is used to allow the use of shared resources without mapping a drive to them.

Unicast - A transmission to a single interface card.

URL - Universal Resource Relocator is a term used to describe the name of a web based resource such as a web page or location of a file for down loading.

VPN - Virtual Private Networking. The function of VPN is to allow two computers or networks to talk to each other over a transport media that is not secure, but the network is made secure by VPN security protocols.

W3C - World Wide Web Consortium, sets standards for the web working with the IETF.

WAN - Wide Area Network is larger than a MAN and may be an enterprise network or a global network.

WINS - Windows Internet Name Service is the Microsoft implementation of NetBIOS name service.

WML - Wireless markup language is another name for HDML.

X.25 - This is a set of protocols developed by the CCITT/ITU which specifies how to connect computer devices over a internetwork.

X.400 - International Telecommunication Union standard defines transfer protocols for sending mail between mail servers.

X.500 - This is a recommendation outlining how an organization can share objects and names on a large network. It is hierarchical similar to DNS, defining domains consisting of organizations, divisions, departments, and workgroups.

XML - Extensible Markup Language is a subset of SGML and is used widely on the web.

ZIP - Zone information protocol used with RTMP to map zones. Routers use zone information tables (ZITs) to define network addresses and zone names.

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Advantages of SATA over PATA

There are two types of hard drive connections that a computer could have: Parallel ATA (PATA) and Serial ATA (SATA). SATA is most commonly used in nearly all computers today, due to below mentioned advantages.

Advantages

Increased data transfer rate

The primary reason SATA is used over PATA is because of the increased data transfer speeds with that SATA. PATA is capable of data transfers speeds of 66/100/133 MBs/second, whereas SATA is capable of 150/300/600 MBs/second. The speed differences are due to the various flavors of PATA and SATA, with the fastest speeds being the latest version of each currently available. You'll notice that SATA's slowest speed is still faster than PATA's fastest speed. The improved speed of SATA allows for programs to load faster, as well as pictures and larger documents. For video game enthusiasts, faster data transfer speeds can mean better gaming experiences (i.e. smoother game-play).

Easy cable management and cable length

Another advantage of SATA over PATA is the length of the cable connecting the hard drive to the computer motherboard. The max length of a PATA cable is 18-inches, whereas a SATA cable can be up to 3.3 feet (1 meter) in length. This allows for more flexibility on where a hard drive can be mounted in a computer case.

www.windowslinux.co.in

Increased airflow

SATA cables are also smaller in size than a PATA cable, allowing for increased airflow inside the computer case and decreased heat build up. This can help improve the overall life of a computer.

Support for more drives

There are typically four to six SATA connections on a computer motherboard, allowing for multiple SATA hard drives to be hooked up. There are usually only two PATA connections on a computer motherboard that supports a total of four PATA hard drives.

Disadvantages

Drivers and support

There are only a few small disadvantages of SATA over PATA. One disadvantage is that SATA hard drives will sometimes require a specific driver to be loaded to a computer when installing an operating system, in order for the computer to utilize the SATA hard drive. This has more recently been rectified by allowing a SATA hard drive to act like a PATA hard drive, thus eliminating the need for the specific driver to be loaded. However, some SATA functionality will be lost in order to gain this mimic functionality.

Older operating systems such as Windows 95 and 98 that were released long before SATA was introduced will also not support SATA drives.

One drive per cable

Another disadvantage with SATA is that the cable allows for only one SATA hard drive to be connected at a time. Whereas a PATA cable allows for hooking up two PATA hard drives per cable.

Difference between a domain and a workgroup?

Computers on a network can be part of a workgroup or a domain. The main difference between workgroups and domains is how resources on the network are managed. Computers on home networks are usually part of a workgroup, and computers on workplace networks are usually part of a domain.

In a workgroup:

• All computers are peers; no computer has control over another computer.
• Each computer has a set of user accounts. To use any computer in the workgroup, you must have an account on that computer.
• There are typically no more than ten to twenty computers.
• All computers must be on the same local network or subnet.

In a domain:

• One or more computers are servers. Network administrators use servers to control the security and permissions for all computers on the domain. This makes it easy to make changes because the changes are automatically made to all computers.
• If you have a user account on the domain, you can log on to any computer on the domain without needing an account on that computer.
• There can be hundreds or thousands of computers.
• The computers can be on different local networks.

Who Hacked Linux.Com ?

By now you have probably heard that most of the Linux Foundation's websites including Linux.com and Linux.org are down, the victims of a hack. It seems that a breach of Kernel.org a few weeks ago may have given the hackers a way in. The folks at the Linux Foundation became aware of a potential security issue on September 8th.  In fact if you try to reach the site you will see the following:

Linux Foundation infrastructure including LinuxFoundation.org, Linux.com, and their subdomains are down for maintenance due to a security breach that was discovered on September 8, 2011. The Linux Foundation made this decision in the interest of extreme caution and security best practices. We believe this breach was connected to the intrusion on kernel.org.
We are in the process of restoring services in a secure manner as quickly as possible. As with any intrusion and as a matter of caution, you should consider the passwords and SSH keys that you have used on these sites compromised. If you have reused these passwords on other sites, please change them immediately. We are currently auditing all systems and will update this statement when we have more information.
We apologize for the inconvenience. We are taking this matter seriously and appreciate your patience. The Linux Foundation infrastructure houses a variety of services and programs including Linux.com, Open Printing, Linux Mark, Linux Foundation events and others, but does not include the Linux kernel or its code repositories.
Please contact us at info@linuxfoundation.org with questions about this matter.
The Linux Foundation
*** UPDATE***
We want to thank you for your questions and your support. We hope this FAQ can help address some of your inquiries.
Q: When will Linux Foundation services, such as events, training and Linux.com be back online?
Our team is working around the clock to restore these important services. We are working with authorities and exercising both extreme caution and diligence. Services will begin coming back online in the coming days and will keep you informed every step of the way.
Q: Were passwords stored in plaintext?
The Linux Foundation does not store passwords in plaintext. However an attacker with access to stored password would have direct access to conduct a brute force attack. An in-depth analysis of direct-access brute forcing, as it relates to password strength, can be read athttp://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2007/01/choosing_secure.html. We encourage you to use extreme caution, as is the case in any security breach, and discontinue the use of that password if you re-use it across other sites.
Q: Does my Linux.com email address work?
Yes, Linux.com email addresses are working and safe to use.
Q: What do you know about the source of the attack?
We are aggressively investigating the source of the attack. Unfortunately, we can't elaborate on this for the time being.
Q: Is there anything I can do to help?
We want to thank everyone who has expressed their support while we address this breach. We ask you to be patient as we do everything possible to restore services as quickly as possible.

 
So while the folks at the Linux Foundation try to get to the bottom of this, I thought we could all help by playing a game. Not one of these new fangled video games, but a good old fashioned board game like we used to play when I was young.  So lets play a game of Clue: The Linux Edition.

I have already prepared dossiers on who I think may be the leading suspects:


The now former CEO of Yahoo! is just so upset, she is liable to lash out at just about anyone. She did sign a deal with Microsoft and they have brainwashed her into thinking Linux was purely evil or at the very least guilty of violating numerous Microsoft patents.  In her present state of mind it wouldn't take too much to push her over the edge.  We are looking into her alibi claims right now.  Attending her final Yahoo BoD meeting is just not going to hold water.






Having taken over the levers officially at Apple, Cook wants to put his own mark on the company. The pressures of competing with the many-headed Hydra of Linux based Android have been building for some time. He can't afford to be seen as being weak. Of course there was no way to strike at all of the Android handset makers, but by attacking Linux he could go after all of them at once. He hopes this will make Steve proud of him!







How can we have an attack on Linux and not have Microsoft as a suspect? Of course it is so obvious, probably too obvious.  But lets face it, Ballmer put a lot of money and his own prestige on the line with Windows Phone 7 and it hasn't gone the way he hoped.  This stupid Linux has been a thorn in his side for years. He finally had the chance to do something and obvious or not, he struck perhaps?







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